ChemistryQ&A by dot point

Interpret a carbon-13 NMR spectrum by relating the number of peaks to the number of carbon environments and the chemical shift of each peak to the type of carbon environment using the data booklet

Describe the chemical tests used in qualitative analysis to identify common cations (including with NaOH and aqueous ammonia), anions (carbonate, sulfate, halides, nitrate) and gases, and interpret the observations

Explain the origin of infrared absorption from bond vibrations, use characteristic absorption ranges from the data booklet to identify functional groups, and distinguish compounds such as alcohols, carbonyls and carboxylic acids from their spectra

Interpret a mass spectrum to identify the molecular ion and relative molecular mass, deduce fragments from peaks, and explain isotope patterns including the M+2 peak of chlorine and bromine compounds

Interpret a proton (1H) NMR spectrum using chemical shift, peak area (integration), and spin-spin splitting (the n+1 rule), and use D2O exchange to identify OH and NH protons

Combine evidence from mass spectrometry, infrared spectroscopy, proton and carbon-13 NMR and chemical tests to deduce the structure of an organic compound, working systematically from molecular mass to functional groups to the carbon skeleton

Describe the trends down Group 17 in volatility, colour and oxidising power, explain displacement reactions of halogens and halides, describe the reactions of halide ions with silver nitrate and with concentrated sulfuric acid, and the disproportionation of chlorine

Describe the trends down Group 2 in reactivity with water and oxygen, the thermal stability and solubility of the carbonates, nitrates, hydroxides and sulfates, and explain these trends in terms of ionic radius and charge density

Explain the unreactivity of nitrogen, describe the formation and basicity of ammonia, the industrial Haber process and the formation of nitrogen oxides, and discuss the environmental impact of nitrogen oxides and ammonium fertilisers

Describe and explain the periodic variation across Period 3 in atomic radius, ionic radius, melting point and electrical conductivity, and the trends in the bonding, structure and acid-base behaviour of the oxides and chlorides

Describe the formation of sulfur dioxide and its role in acid rain, outline the Contact process for manufacturing sulfuric acid, and explain the use of sulfur dioxide as a preservative and the methods used to control sulfur emissions

Define a transition element, explain the existence of variable oxidation states from the close energies of the 3d and 4s subshells, and describe their use as catalysts and the role of variable oxidation states in catalysis

Describe the formation of complex ions with ligands, explain coordination number and shape, account for the origin of colour in terms of d orbital splitting and d-d transitions, and describe ligand exchange reactions

Describe the bonding and relative inertness of alkanes, their combustion, and the free-radical substitution of alkanes by halogens, including the initiation, propagation and termination steps of the mechanism

Describe the reactions of alkenes including electrophilic addition of hydrogen halides, halogens and water, oxidation, and the mechanism of electrophilic addition including Markovnikov's rule and carbocation stability

Describe the delocalised structure of benzene and the evidence for it, explain why benzene undergoes electrophilic substitution rather than addition, and describe the mechanisms of nitration and halogenation

Describe the reactions of aldehydes and ketones including nucleophilic addition of HCN, reduction, and the use of 2,4-DNPH, Tollens, Fehling and the tri-iodomethane test to identify and distinguish carbonyl compounds

Describe the acidity and reactions of carboxylic acids, the formation and hydrolysis of esters, acyl chlorides and amides, and explain the relative acid strengths of carboxylic acids in terms of inductive effects

Describe the nucleophilic substitution and elimination reactions of halogenoalkanes, distinguish the SN1 and SN2 mechanisms, relate the mechanism to the class of halogenoalkane, and explain the relative rates of hydrolysis of the halogenoalkanes

Describe the reactions of alcohols including oxidation, esterification, dehydration and the tri-iodomethane test, classify primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols, and explain the greater acidity of phenol and its ease of ring substitution

Apply IUPAC nomenclature, interpret structural, displayed and skeletal formulae, and describe and identify constitutional (structural) isomerism and stereoisomerism (cis-trans and optical isomerism)

Describe the preparation and basicity of amines and explain the relative basicity of aliphatic and aromatic amines, describe the hydrolysis of amides, and describe the zwitterion behaviour and isoelectric point of amino acids

Distinguish addition and condensation polymerisation, identify the repeat unit and monomers of a given polymer, describe polyesters and polyamides, and discuss the disposal and environmental impact of plastics

Describe the structure of the atom in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, deduce electronic configurations using s, p and d subshells, and explain successive and periodic ionisation energy trends in terms of nuclear charge, shielding and subshell energies

Describe ionic, covalent (including dative) and metallic bonding, predict molecular shapes and bond angles using VSEPR, account for bond polarity and overall polarity, and relate intermolecular forces (van der Waals, hydrogen bonding) to physical properties

Define standard enthalpy changes (formation, combustion, neutralisation, atomisation, lattice energy, hydration, solution), apply Hess's law and Born-Haber cycles, and use the relationship between enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy to judge feasibility

Explain dynamic equilibrium and write expressions for Kc and Kp, calculate equilibrium constants and equilibrium amounts, and apply Le Chatelier's principle to predict the effect of concentration, pressure, temperature and catalysts on the position of equilibrium

Define standard electrode potential, calculate standard cell potential and use it to predict the feasibility of redox reactions, describe the effect of concentration qualitatively, and apply Faraday's laws to electrolysis calculations

Apply the Bronsted-Lowry theory, distinguish strong and weak acids and bases using Ka, Kb and pKa, calculate pH of strong and weak acids and of buffers, explain buffer action, and interpret titration curves and indicator choice

Explain rate of reaction using collision theory and the Boltzmann distribution, deduce rate equations and orders from experimental data, define the rate constant and half-life, and use the rate-determining step to propose a reaction mechanism, including the action of catalysts

Assign oxidation numbers, define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer and oxidation-number change, identify oxidising and reducing agents, and construct balanced redox equations from half-equations

Define and write expressions for the solubility product Ksp, calculate solubility from Ksp and vice versa, predict precipitation by comparing the ionic product with Ksp, and explain the common ion effect

State the ideal gas equation pV = nRT and use it in calculations including determination of molar mass, explain the assumptions of the kinetic theory, and account for the deviation of real gases from ideal behaviour at high pressure and low temperature

Define the mole and the Avogadro constant, interconvert mass, amount, gas volume and solution concentration, and apply stoichiometry including limiting reagent, percentage yield and atom economy and titration calculations